Sport Management
Nusrat Allah abedini; parvin Asadpour kofy
Abstract
Background and Purpose: The sports industry has become one of the important economic and social sectors worldwide due to its significant contribution to employment creation, income generation, gross domestic product growth, and cultural development. Within this industry, sports clubs play a fundamental ...
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Background and Purpose: The sports industry has become one of the important economic and social sectors worldwide due to its significant contribution to employment creation, income generation, gross domestic product growth, and cultural development. Within this industry, sports clubs play a fundamental role as professional organizations that can generate economic value through marketing, media activities, sponsorship, and commercial investments. In developed countries, many professional sports clubs are managed by private sectors, allowing them to benefit from specialized management, financial independence, and market-oriented strategies (Alonso Dos Santos & Calabuig Moreno, 2020). Football clubs, as among the most influential organizations in the sports industry, have increasingly moved toward professionalization and commercialization, where effective governance and sustainable financial models are essential for long-term success (Zhang et al., 2018). Privatization has been recognized as a potential strategy for improving club performance by increasing investment opportunities, enhancing managerial efficiency, strengthening financial transparency, and reducing dependence on governmental resources (Balwel & Tayachi, 2021; Bada & Magaji, 2017). However, the privatization process of sports clubs requires appropriate legal frameworks, transparent financial mechanisms, professional management, and effective control of political and administrative challenges to achieve successful outcomes (Gharehkhani et al., 2017; Shahlaee & Ghorbanalizadeh Ghaziani, 2015). In Iran, despite the significant social and economic importance of Esteghlal and Persepolis football clubs, their transition from state ownership to private management has faced various structural, financial, and managerial challenges. Therefore, identifying and prioritizing effective strategies and possible consequences of privatization is essential for developing a sustainable model for professional football clubs.
Methodology: The current research was applied in terms of purpose, and in terms of data collection, it was descriptive-analytical and field method. The research process was done in two stages. In the first stage, a questionnaire related to the indicators of handing over state sports clubs to the private sector was prepared and provided to the statistical community through literature review and research background. The statistical population was football federation officials with 18 people, university professors with 33 people and club managers with 23 people and a total of 74 people. The sampling method was full number and all the people of the society were selected as a sample. In the second step, the relative weight and rank of each index were analyzed using the Analytical Hierarchy (AHP) technique and Expert Choice software. Analytic Hierarchy Process is one of the most famous multi-criteria decision-making techniques that was first developed by Thomas L. in the 1970s. This technique examines complex problems based on their interactions and solves them by transforming them into a simple form. The basis of this decision-making method is based on pairwise comparisons in such a way that after the indicators are identified and the questionnaire is given to the subjects; a series of pairwise comparisons are made by the subjects. These comparisons show the weight of each index in line with the competing options evaluated in the decision. Finally, this process combines the matrices obtained from the pairwise comparisons to obtain the optimal decision.
Results: In general, it can be concluded that privatization has a very direct relationship with the economic development of the country, especially the prosperity of sports clubs, and is a very important step for a better economy and more opportunities, and it takes time to show results. In order to successfully implement privatization programs in sports, studying successful experiences of countries in the field of privatization can be very beneficial, but an important point that should be considered is the ability to generalize the results and consider the conditions and requirements of each country, which ultimately causes differences in the goals, methods, effects and success rate of privatization programs in sports. Considering the results obtained from the present study, it is suggested that the government, by accepting a competitive economy, provide a suitable platform for the privatization of Persepolis and Esteghlal clubs and implement the privatization of professional clubs. It is also suggested that an important step be taken towards privatization by widespread advertising among the fans and supporters of the two football teams Persepolis and Esteghlal.
Discussion: The present study was conducted with the aim of formulating and prioritizing the strategies and outcomes proposed by state-owned sports clubs, especially using the AHP hierarchical technique. Regarding the most important strategies proposed by the red clubs to the private sector from the official perspectives of the Football Federation, university clubs, and club managers, it shows that they were legal, political, and structural strategies, respectively, and no difference was observed between the three groups of the statistical population regarding the strategies of football clubs to the private sector. The contribution of sports to the national economy is directly related to the number of investments made in the sports sector, which in the current situation, due to the limitations and bottlenecks that are part of the participation in the development of sports countries, is very low compared to developed countries. Persepolis and Esteghlal football clubs have a special and unique position in society, and on the other hand, these two clubs have a long history and are part of the history of the country.
Conclusions: The findings of this study indicate that the privatization of state-owned sports clubs, particularly Esteghlal and Persepolis football clubs, requires the implementation of comprehensive legal, political, and structural strategies to ensure successful transition and sustainable development. According to the AHP results, transparency in financial information, changing the government's role from direct management to supervision and leadership, and combating corruption and rent-seeking were identified as the most important strategies for effective privatization. Furthermore, managerial, economic, and political consequences were recognized as the major outcomes of transferring clubs to the private sector, with improvements in managerial efficiency, financial stability, and reduced political interference being among the key benefits. Therefore, successful privatization should be accompanied by professional management training, supportive legal frameworks, financial transparency, and competitive economic policies to enhance the performance of sports clubs and contribute to the growth of the sports industry.
Organizational Behavior Management
nasrin sadeghian; abdolzahra naami; ali jalili shishavan
Abstract
Background and Purpose: Organizational variables play a crucial role in shaping employee well-being and authenticity, particularly among athletic employees in welfare organizations who face unique professional and emotional demands. Authenticity at work—defined by authentic living, absence of self-alienation, ...
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Background and Purpose: Organizational variables play a crucial role in shaping employee well-being and authenticity, particularly among athletic employees in welfare organizations who face unique professional and emotional demands. Authenticity at work—defined by authentic living, absence of self-alienation, and resistance to external influence—is recognized as a key driver of psychological health and performance. Drawing on Self-Determination Theory (SDT), basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) are proposed as critical mechanisms translating contextual workplace variables into individual authenticity. Despite its importance, the causal pathways linking variables like authentic leadership, job autonomy, organizational justice, and organizational support to employee authenticity remain underexplored in this specific demographic. Therefore, the present study aims to present a causal model of the authenticity of athletic employees in the State Welfare Organization based on organizational variables, with the mediating role of basic psychological needs.
Methodology: This applied study adopted a descriptive-correlational, cross-sectional design and employed Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The statistical population consisted of all athletic employees of the State Welfare Organization in East Azerbaijan Province. Based on Cochran’s formula and methodological recommendations, a sample of 251 employees (170 holding Bachelor’s, 69 Master’s, and 12 PhD degrees; mean age = 52.19 years) was selected using convenience sampling via online questionnaires. Data were collected using standard instruments: Individual Authenticity Measure at Work (Van den Bosch & Taris, 2014), Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (Avolio et al., 2006), Job Autonomy Scale (Hackman & Oldham, 1975), Perceived Organizational Support (Eisenberger et al., 1986), Organizational Justice (Colquitt, 2001), and the Basic Psychological Needs Scale (La Guardia et al., 2000). Statistical assumptions, including normality and absence of multicollinearity (VIF < 10), were confirmed. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS 24 and AMOS 24, utilizing bootstrapping methods to assess mediation effects.
Results: The SEM results demonstrated a satisfactory fit for the proposed conceptual model. Findings revealed that authentic leadership had a strong and significant direct positive effect on employee authenticity (β=0.79, p<0.001). Furthermore, the fulfillment of basic psychological needs significantly mediated the relationship between the organizational variables and employee authenticity (β=0.17, p<0.). Interestingly, while job autonomy (β=0.58) and organizational justice (β=0.12) did not exhibit significant direct effects on employee authenticity, they had significant indirect effects through the mediation of basic psychological needs.
Discussion: The findings confirm that authentic leadership is a primary determinant of authenticity among athletic employees, aligning with prior literature highlighting the importance of supportive and transparent leadership. The significant mediating role of basic psychological needs provides robust empirical support for Self-Determination Theory (SDT) in the workplace, indicating that organizational factors such as justice and autonomy foster authenticity only when they successfully fulfill employees’ innate psychological needs. The lack of direct effects for job autonomy and justice emphasizes the necessity of this psychological translation process. Limitations of the study include its cross-sectional design, which restricts definitive causal inferences, and the reliance on convenience sampling limited to East Azerbaijan Province, which warrants caution in generalizing the results to other regions or sectors.
Conclusions: The present study demonstrated that basic psychological needs act as a vital mechanism channeling the positive impact of organizational variables—especially authentic leadership—toward employee authenticity. The results support key principles inferred from SDT, emphasizing the multidimensional nature of workplace well-being. Theoretically, the study contributes to the expansion of authenticity and psychological needs research within sport and welfare settings. Practically, it provides welfare organizations, human resource managers, and policymakers with actionable insights to cultivate authentic leadership and design interventions aimed at satisfying basic psychological needs. Future studies are recommended to test this causal model longitudinally and validate it across broader geographical regions and diverse athletic populations.
Organizational Behavior Management
amirhoshang Nazarpouri
Abstract
Background and Purpose: Unethical Pro-Organizational Behavior (UPB) has become an important issue in organizational ethics and sustainable business. UPB refers to intentional employee actions undertaken to support the organization and protect its interests while violating laws, ethical standards, and ...
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Background and Purpose: Unethical Pro-Organizational Behavior (UPB) has become an important issue in organizational ethics and sustainable business. UPB refers to intentional employee actions undertaken to support the organization and protect its interests while violating laws, ethical standards, and social expectations . Such behavior may include concealing mistakes, providing misleading information to customers, manipulating financial reports, disclosing competitors’ confidential information, fraud, and bribery (Khushk et al., 2022). Although UPB may generate short-term benefits such as increased sales, reputation protection, or competitive advantage, it can produce serious long-term consequences, including stakeholder harm, reduced trust, financial losses, legal problems, and reputational damage (Cheng et al., 2022). Individual characteristics, personality and values, workplace conditions, job-related factors, employment pressures, and the quality of employees’ exchange relationships with their organization may contribute to its emergence (Tan et al., 2021). Given its dual nature—organizational loyalty accompanied by ethical violations—UPB requires further investigation, particularly in organizational settings where loyalty and performance pressures may encourage such behavior. Accordingly, this study aimed to identify and analyze the antecedents and consequences of UPB and to explain the factors contributing to its occurrence and its organizational outcomes. Understanding these factors can provide a basis for managing UPB while preserving organizational legitimacy, reputation, and sustainability.
Methodology: This study employed a mixed-methods approach within a deductive–inductive paradigm. In terms of purpose, it was applied, and in terms of nature and method, it adopted a descriptive survey design. The qualitative phase identified the components associated with UPB, while the quantitative phase examined the causal relationships among these components and UPB and determined their relative importance. The research population comprised university professors specializing in sports behavior and psychology, as well as managers and deputy managers of the Lorestan Province Department of Sports and Youth. Using snowball sampling and based on theoretical sufficiency, 26 participants were selected. In the qualitative phase, data were collected through semi-structured interviews conducted in person and by telephone. The interview protocol addressed the factors influencing UPB and its consequences. Content validity, theoretical validity, intra-coder reliability, and inter-coder reliability were used to establish the validity and reliability of the qualitative instrument. In the quantitative phase, data were collected through questionnaires administered in person and via email, with content validity and test–retest reliability used to assess the instrument. Qualitative data were analyzed through coding using MAXQDA, while the Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping (FCM) method was employed for quantitative analysis.
Results: The findings showed that organizational identity was the most important antecedent of UPB in sports organizations, followed by social exchange. Other identified antecedents included pseudo-transformational leadership, personality factors, reciprocal expectations, self-serving behavior, legal gaps, stronger affective commitment to the organization, lack of ethical leadership, and organizational dependence. Regarding consequences, organizational consequences were the most important outcome of UPB, followed by the strategic future of the organization. Other consequences included legal issues, individual consequences, damage to brand reputation, organizational distrust, violations of social responsibility, unmet expectations, adverse health-related factors, and reduced organizational income. Overall, the findings indicate that although UPB may emerge from an intention to support the organization, it can generate substantial long-term negative consequences for the reputation, performance, legitimacy, and future of sports organizations.
Discussion: The prominence of organizational identity as the most important antecedent can be explained by the emotional and cognitive bond between organizational members and their organization. Strong identification and belonging may motivate individuals to protect the organization even when such actions conflict with ethical standards. Thus, organizational identity, despite promoting attachment, satisfaction, and participation, may also facilitate the justification of unethical behavior when clear ethical boundaries are absent. This finding is consistent with Amir et al. (2022). The significant role of social exchange further indicates that relationships based on trust, support, and mutual benefits can shape employees’ behavior, particularly when they perceive inadequate organizational support or inequity in the exchange relationship. This result is consistent with Chen et al. (2022). The prominence of organizational consequences demonstrates that UPB, despite its apparent short-term benefits, may ultimately harm the organization itself through diminished trust, reputational damage, legal problems, and reduced legitimacy. This finding is consistent with Vem et al. (2023). Moreover, the importance of the organization’s strategic future indicates that continued UPB may undermine long-term growth, competitiveness, and sustainability, consistent with Wang et al. (2019). Overall, the findings suggest that the central challenge is not simply eliminating UPB, but establishing a balance between organizational loyalty and identification and adherence to ethical principles.
Conclusions: The results demonstrate that UPB is a dual-natured phenomenon that may originate from organizational loyalty and the desire to support the organization but, in the absence of appropriate ethical frameworks, can produce adverse organizational consequences. Organizational identity and social exchange were the most important antecedents, whereas organizational consequences and the strategic future of the organization were the most important outcomes. Therefore, managers of sports organizations should look beyond the apparently supportive nature of such behaviors and consider their long-term effects on reputation, public trust, legitimacy, performance, and sustainability. Strengthening organizational identity should be accompanied by ethical values, transparency, accountability, and effective mechanisms for monitoring and reporting misconduct. Developing trust- and fairness-based relationships, training leaders to distinguish organizational motivation from unethical justification, and establishing clear legal and disciplinary mechanisms can help prevent UPB. Ultimately, effective management of UPB requires organizational loyalty to be defined not in opposition to ethics, but within the framework of professional ethics and organizational responsibility.
Organizational Behavior Management
sara seraj
Abstract
Introduction
Employee turnover intention is one of the most significant challenges faced by modern ...
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Introduction
Employee turnover intention is one of the most significant challenges faced by modern organizations, particularly in dynamic and high-pressure environments such as sports organizations. Employees in these contexts are often exposed to high levels of stress, demanding workloads, and continuous interpersonal interactions, which increase the likelihood of burnout and turnover intention. Therefore, identifying factors that can effectively reduce turnover intention is crucial for organizational sustainability.
This study investigates the impact of positive leadership styles—including servant leadership, transformational leadership, and authentic leadership—on turnover intention, with a particular focus on the mediating role of psychological resilience. Psychological resilience refers to the capacity of individuals to adapt to stressful conditions and recover from adversity, often emerging stronger from such experiences (Southwick et al., 2023; Masten, 2021).
The theoretical framework of this research integrates three prominent theories: Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) theory (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995), Conservation of Resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll, 1989), and the Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) model (Demerouti et al., 2021). These frameworks collectively explain how leadership behaviors, psychological resources, and job conditions interact to influence employee outcomes such as turnover intention.
Methodology
This study employed a quantitative, cross-sectional, and applied research design. The statistical population consisted of employees working in selected Iranian sports federations, representing various domains such as martial arts, aquatic sports, public sports, and medical sports organizations. A total of 400 questionnaires were distributed, and 387 valid responses were analyzed.
Standardized instruments were used for data collection, including:
Servant Leadership Scale (Liden et al., 2014), Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (Walumbwa et al., 2008), Transformational Leadership Questionnaire (Bass & Avolio, 2004), Psychological Resilience Scale (Smith et al., 2008), Turnover Intention Scale (Moghimy, 2019)
All variables were measured using a 5-point Likert scale. Reliability was confirmed through Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranging from 0.76 to 0.90, indicating strong internal consistency.
Data were analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) with SPSS 27 and AMOS 26, allowing for the examination of both direct and indirect relationships among variables.
Results
The findings of the study provide strong empirical support for the proposed model:
1.Impact of Leadership Styles on Psychological Resilience
All three leadership styles demonstrated significant positive effects on psychological resilience:Servant leadership (β = 0.284), Transformational leadership (β = 0.256), Authentic leadership (β = 0.214)  These results indicate that supportive and ethical leadership behaviors contribute to strengthening employees’ psychological capacities.
Direct Effects on Turnover Intention
Each leadership style had a significant negative effect on turnover intention: Servant leadership (β = -0.278), Transformational leadership (β = -0.287), Authentic leadership (β = -0.302), Psychological resilience also showed a strong negative relationship with turnover intention (β = -0.736), suggesting that resilient employees are less likely to leave their jobs.
Mediating Role of Psychological Resilience
The results confirmed that psychological resilience plays a significant mediating role:Servant leadership → resilience → turnover intention (β = -0.209), Transformational leadership → resilience → turnover intention (β = -0.183), Authentic leadership → resilience → turnover intention (β = -0.160)
This suggests that leadership styles reduce turnover intention partly by enhancing employees’ resilience.
Model Fit
The structural model demonstrated a good fit with the data (CFI = 0.962, RMSEA = 0.054), confirming the validity of the conceptual framework.
Discussion
The findings are consistent with previous research and theoretical perspectives. From the COR theory, leadership styles act as valuable social resources that enhance employees’ psychological resilience and help them cope with stress (Hobfoll, 1989; Bai & Bai, 2024)
From the LMX theory, high-quality leader–employee relationships increase trust, commitment, and job satisfaction, thereby reducing turnover intention (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995; Arnold et al., 2015)
Furthermore, the JD-R model explains the strong negative impact of resilience on turnover intention, as resilience functions as a personal resource that buffers the effects of job demands and prevents burnout (Demerouti et al., 2021; Xanthopoulou et al., 2023).
The stronger mediating effect observed for servant leadership may be attributed to its people-oriented nature, which emphasizes employee well-being, growth, and empowerment (Liden et al., 2014; Jakada, 2025).
Conclusion
This study demonstrates that positive leadership styles significantly reduce turnover intention, both directly and indirectly through psychological resilience. The integration of LMX, COR, and JD-R theories provides a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms underlying these relationships.
From a practical standpoint, sports organizations should invest in leadership development programs that emphasize positive leadership behaviors and foster a supportive work environment that enhances employee resilience.
Organizational Behavior Management
Nasibeh Esmaili; Mohammad Hami; Vahid Shojaei
Abstract
Background and Purpose: For the first time, social researcher Albert Herchman proposed organizational silence in 1970, which was considered as a passive attitude towards the existing and unfavorable situation and was later developed by some other scientists from different angles (Zehir and Erdogan, 2011). ...
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Background and Purpose: For the first time, social researcher Albert Herchman proposed organizational silence in 1970, which was considered as a passive attitude towards the existing and unfavorable situation and was later developed by some other scientists from different angles (Zehir and Erdogan, 2011). Organizational silence is a social phenomenon in which employees refuse to express their opinions and concerns about organizational problems (Olcer et al., 2024).) Also defined organizational silence as employees' refusal to express behavioral, cognitive and affective assessments about organizational situations. Although organizational silence generally refers to employees' deliberate failure to express ideas, information and opinions, its nature varies according to the motivations that exist in the employee for silence. Sometimes silence may be due to the individual's submission to any situation (submissive silence), sometimes due to fear and conservative behaviors (defensive silence), and sometimes to create opportunities for others to express their opinions (altruistic silence) (Knoll & Van Dick, 2012). In this regard, the present study aims to design a conceptual model to recreate the antecedents of organizational silence among physical education teachers in education, based on new restorative justice approaches, examine the key components of this approach and provide practical solutions to reduce organizational silence.
Methodology: This research is applied in terms of purpose and qualitative in terms of implementation method and is based on the data-based theory approach with the systematic model of Strauss and Corbin (1998). The main goal of this approach is to discover the fundamental constructs and concepts that arise from the participants' real and experienced data; therefore, data analysis was carried out in three stages: open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. Open coding is dedicated to identifying initial concepts and extracting initial codes from the participants' statements. In the axial coding stage, these concepts were organized in the form of subcategories around a central phenomenon. Finally, in selective coding, the main categories were integrated according to the structure of the paradigmatic model and included causal conditions, contextual conditions, intervening conditions, strategies, and consequences around the central phenomenon of recreating the antecedents of organizational silence.
The research community in this study included a group of experts with specialized and empirical qualifications in four key areas: sports management, organizational sociology, restorative justice, and human resources in the education system. The purpose of selecting this multidisciplinary group was to achieve multidimensional and integrated perspectives on the complex phenomenon of organizational silence and its restorative solutions.
Results: The findings showed that organizational silence is the result of causal conditions such as institutional distrust, communication blockage, lack of justice in resource allocation, and bitter experiences resulting from expressing opinions. Background conditions such as a conservative general atmosphere, structural incoherence in the school system, and weakness in intra-organizational interactions provide a platform for the development of this phenomenon. At the same time, variables such as lack of institutional cohesion in the face of cultural conflicts and legal pressures play an inhibiting role as intervening conditions in breaking out of silence. In the meantime, strategies such as institutionalizing restorative justice, strengthening human resources, expanding cultural and communication capacities, and promoting teachers' social participation can pave the way for breaking out of silence. The consequences of implementing such strategies can be seen at both individual (improving mental health) and organizational (increasing social capital and improving school communications) levels.
Discussion: The results of qualitative interviews and data analysis using the grounded theory method showed that teachers' organizational silence is a multidimensional phenomenon and is affected by behavioral, cultural, managerial, and value structures in the school and the education system. Based on the paradigm model developed in the present study, a set of causal conditions such as lack of psychological security, organizational distrust, and failed experiences in disclosure provide a basis for the formation of this silence.
Conclusions: Practical suggestions for policymakers, school administrators, and education officials: Creating a secure and anonymous system for receiving professional feedback from teachers, training school administrators in listening skills and restorative dialogue, forming collaborative learning circles between teachers and administrators, designing workshops to empower teachers in the field of professional rights and healthy protest methods, institutionalizing a culture of respect for different perspectives in schools, developing a regulation to support whistleblowers of mismanagement at the school level, strengthening teacher councils with real decision-making power, employing restorative justice facilitators in schools with high conflict, developing a bank of successful experiences of open dialogue in schools, enabling regular dialogue between regional officials and selected teachers, designing mechanisms for evaluating the performance of administrators by teachers, using technology to document teachers' attitudes and opinions in real time, creating a "breaking silence room" as a symbolic space for free expression, creating spiritual rewards for Teachers who bring about change with their voices, designing radio and media programs to promote narratives of resistance to silence, redesigning the administrative hierarchy structure for horizontal participation of teachers, inviting restorative justice experts to review disciplinary regulations, holding regional conferences to reflect the voices of teachers, incorporating restorative justice training into in-service courses, and allocating specific funding for silence-breaking projects in underserved schools.
Sport Management
Sedigheh Eslami; Motahareh Sakhizadeh
Abstract
A B S T R A C TThe present study is applied in terms of purpose and descriptive-correlational in terms of how to collect data. The statistical population of this study consisted of physical education experts, experts and managers of the tourism department of the Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization, ...
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A B S T R A C TThe present study is applied in terms of purpose and descriptive-correlational in terms of how to collect data. The statistical population of this study consisted of physical education experts, experts and managers of the tourism department of the Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization, managers of travel agencies and heads of sports delegations who using stratified random sampling method and Cochran's formula, volume the sample was estimated at 193 people. The questionnaires used are: Shakoori and Mohammadi Digital Marketing Strategies Questionnaire (2015), Factors Affecting the Development of Hemmati Sports Tourism (2016). To analyze the data of this study, descriptive statistics, linear regression, and structural equation modeling were used with SPSS and LISREL software.Findings showed that among the variables of this study, education and tourism research have the highest dispersion and the lowest average. Findings of the study confirm that digital marketing has a positive and significant effect on the development of sports tourism education and research in Ahvaz. Also, all variables have a normal distribution with respect to the values of skewness and elongation. The results of the factors of digital marketing strategies showed that the factor load of all items was more than 0.4 and the values of t-statistic were more than 2.58; therefore, there is an acceptable relationship between the items.The results showed that political and legal support and the creation of appropriate political infrastructure, support and amendment of some laws can in this way lead to the development of sports tourism in the province and accelerate it.
